The conversion involves three techniques:
1. LINE CODING (Always needed, the process of converting digital data to digital signals)
2. BLOCK CODING
3. SCRAMBLING.
Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps). The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud. The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
The relationship between data rate (N) and signal rate (S) S = c xN/r
Propagation Delay:Â Amount of time taken by a packet to make a physical journey from one router to another router.
Propagation Delay = (Distance between routers) / (Velocity of propagation)
RoundTripTime (RTT) = 2* Propagation Delay
TimeOut (TO) =Â 2* RTT
Time To Live (TTL) = 2* TimeOut. (Maximum TTL is 180 seconds)